For many years now, the ways in which histories are represented have been a huge center of interest and debate. Scholars may prefer one way over others which they criticize and consider to be flawed. Today, the media has provided a relatively new way for historical representation in the form of documentaries. These documentaries always claim to convey the latest views of historians on the subject being considered, views which are, as we would expect, much more accurate and detailed than before thanks to the use of modern day technologies. However, instead of being just as accurate and detailed, a close analysis of these historical documentaries and other reliable historical sources may sometimes lead us to realize that they contain some quite misleading implications. Most of these misleading implications are usually found in the introductions or the “coming up next on…” previews of such documentaries. Some of these misleading implications may linger on from the preview and last throughout the entire documentary while others may be clarified towards the end. These previews are crafted by its makers with an objective similar to that behind the previews of other kinds of television programs, for example sitcoms, series, etc., as well as movie trailers, the objective to make the preview or trailer as “eye-catching” and interesting as possible so that, in the ideal case, the audience will be persuaded to watch the entire episode or movie. An analysis of the PBS documentary titled “Secrets of the Dead: Herculaneum Uncovered” will demonstrate a similar purpose that leads to more emphasis on certain “eye-catching” and interesting information about the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, all of which are first made in the documentary’s preview, that tend to imply some not so factual, historically or otherwise, details about the ancient cities. In order to understand this, we first need to know what exactly this documentary is about, then an analysis of what was said in the voice over of the documentary and information from other reliable sources will show that the media has influenced the way in which history is represented and perhaps even the factual accuracy of this relatively new way of historical representation.
Following a lay-out structure of historical representation which Hayden White describes in his book “The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation” as the widely considered proper history format, the documentary first narrates its main historical subject, which is the tragic end of two ancient Roman cities, namely Herculaneum and Pompeii. The “story” then continues with a narration of the excavation history of the ancient cities up to the present and finally concluding with, as Hayden White puts it, a “moralizing judgment” that present day residents of the exact same region may have to face a similar fate if necessary steps are not taken. The ancient cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were situated in the shadow of a volcano, Mt. Vesuvius, right off shore of the Bay of Naples which is in the western region of present day Italy. At the time however, the Roman citizens of these two cities “had no idea that their mountain was even a volcano.” (Bedser, min 9) The tragic end of Herculaneum and Pompeii was brought about by an extremely massive eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D, an incident that has become “an iconic historical disaster of the region”. (Bedser, min 3) The eruption is estimated to have begun somewhere around 1 pm on August 24, 79 A.D and within the following minutes, a huge column of gas and ash, calculated to have been about ten miles high, rose above Mt. Vesuvius. (Bedser, min 10-11) The wind then carried the thick cloud of airborne ash and other volcanic materials towards Pompeii on the SE side of the volcano and, while some citizens were still unaware of what had happened, pumice stone (a light kind of solidified lava) started falling all over the city. (Bedser, min 12) Enveloped in the dark volcanic cloud, the day soon became as dark as night in Pompeii. (Bedser, min 12) As panic spread throughout the city, many people fled while others took refuge in their houses hoping that the extremely hostile storm would soon pass. (Bedser, min 12) Unfortunately however, around 5 pm, rooftops started to collapse under the weight of the pumice and ash, which eventually entombed the entire city. (Bedser, min 15-16) Herculaneum, being on the other side of Vesuvius, was safe allowing most of its estimated 4000 civilians to evacuate the city. (Bedser, min 3-5) However, sometime around the first hour of 25th August 79 A.D, the first of a series of pyroclastic flows came down from Vesuvius towards Herculaneum. (Bedser, min 18) Pyroclastic flows, which occur after progressive collapses of the eruption column of a volcano, are basically dense ash-laden clouds along with superheated gases and other volcanic materials that hurdle down at quite high speeds from the top of a volcano, (Bedser, min 19) appearing to be quite like an avalanche while being almost equally destructive in nature. The first pyroclastic flow overwhelmed Herculaneum in probably no more than four minutes after starting its descent from the volcano. (Walter) Although most of Herculaneum residents had managed to evacuate the city, hundreds were still assembled on the shore near the town. (Bedser, min 42) Apparently, they became aware of the pyroclastic flow heading their way due to which they rushed for shelter in the boat chambers on the beach; some were caught by the flow in the open while most made it into the boat sheds. (Capasso, 5) Here, all the residents of Herculaneum that were still unsuccessful in evacuating the city met their tragic end, dying within minutes. (Capasso, 1) The following pyroclastic flows eventually entombed the entire city of Herculaneum under 70 to 80 feet of volcanic waste. (Bedser min 19) In this way, both the ancient cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried out of sight.
The original airdate of the PBS documentary “Secrets of the Dead: Herculaneum Uncovered” was on 14th May 2004. (IMDB) In the preview of the documentary it is stated in the voice over that “now, new excavations are revealing stunning details about the life and death of the town (i.e. Herculaneum)”. Following in the introductory part of the documentary, it is stated “only now is the truth about its (Herculaneum’s) downfall finally coming to light”. (Bedser min 3) By “the truth” in this phrase, as we later find out in the documentary, the writer is referring to the correction of the long held belief that everyone in Herculaneum managed to escape, thanks to the discovery of the skeletal remains of about 250-300 Herculaneum resident victims of the 79 A.D eruption on the ancient beach. This also happens to be one of the “stunning details about the life and death of the town,” as mentioned in the preview. When the narrator in the documentary says “now, new…” in the preview and “only now is the…” in the introductory part, much of the audience is lead to believe that the discovery of the skeletons on the ancient beach of Herculaneum was made just recently, whereas it was actually made in 1982 (Capasso, 1), some 22 years before the documentary was first aired. Only towards the end of the documentary is this point clarified to the audience by stating that “not until 20 years ago...” Also, while “detailing” the deaths of Herculaneum victims in the preview and other places in the documentary, a strong emphasis is given on “heads exploded” and being “incinerated in a blink of an eye.” These incidents, which would seem quite likely to occur when a population is caught in a pyroclastic flow, are emphasized in the documentary in such a way that the audience is lead to believe that this must have been the way most of the 250-300 victims of Herculaneum died on the ancient beach, even though such a deduction is not explicitly stated anywhere in the documentary. For example, in the preview it is stated “Instantly brains boiled and heads exploded” then in the introductory part it is said “(archeologists) have found remarkable human remains that reveal exactly how the people of Herculaneum met their gruesome and explosive ends.” (Bedser, min 3) Again, towards the end of the documentary it is stated in the voice over that “the intense heat caused brains to boil and skulls to explode.” (Bedser, min 45) According to an article published in “The Lancet”, a well reputed medical newspaper of the United Kingdom, and written by Luigi Capasso, an anthropologist and director of the Anthropology Research Institute at Chieti University in central Italy, (Falconi) who personally did research for five years to come to the conclusions that he makes in the article, “Only a few skeletons had morphologies typical of bone and skull explosions caused by very rapid evaporation of the organic liquids contained within them.” (Capasso, 2 and 6) Capasso also writes, referring to the Herculaneum resident victims found inside the boat sheds, “There was no evidence of bone or skull explosion among the remains of these victims; bone and skull fractures were probably caused by the violent impacts of boulders, beams, tiles and bricks carried by the second flow, which tore through the town and threw material on to the beach, some of which penetrated the boat sheds. In fact, most of the damage to the human remains was caused by the arrival of these materials during the second hour of the night, when people had been dead for about an hour.”(Capasso, 7) Further elaborating on the cause of death of these victims he writes “The indirect, gradual transfer of heat to the people in the boat sheds may have also slowed down the arrival of death, giving them time to take a few breaths; breathing would have allowed large quantities of dust from the first flow to enter into their bronchi ….. Suffocation could therefore have contributed to the deaths of the people who sought refuge in the boat sheds.” (Capasso, 9) In the documentary, even the possibility of the boat shed victims dying of suffocation is not mentioned, nor is there any mention of how many or which victims (i.e. victims outside or inside the boat sheds) could have died of a thermal shock strong enough to result in a head explosion, as if the makers of the documentary wanted to avoid any contradiction to what was implied in the preview and throughout the documentary so that their audience may believe those implications instead of what was being stated.
In light of Professor Hayden White’s critique on historical representation, another way historical documentaries may slightly mislead the audience is likely to be found in its conclusion. In his book, “The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation” Hayden White points out that in modern times, one of the major ways of distinguishing a superior or better historical representation by historians is the extent of its “narrative coherency,” the greater narrative coherency of a historical representation, the better it is. Elaborating on this point, White compares the annals and chronicle forms of historical representation. Annals are, as White puts it, “a list of events ordered in chronological sequence.” (White, 5) This is done by listing years in a column on the left hand side and writing significant or important events next to the year of their occurrence in the right hand side. A chronicle, however, presents historical events in a “story like way.” (White, 5) It is due to this greater narrative coherency that, according to White, a chronicle is widely considered to be a “mode of historiographical representation superior to the annals form.” (White, 16) In a similar manner, White states that a chronicle lacks in narrative coherency as it “does not so much conclude as terminate...” (White, 16) which is “one of the reasons why nineteenth-century editors of the medieval chronicles denied them the status of genuine “histories”.”(White, 16) This is largely due to the fact that a well stated conclusion is characteristic to what “we normally expect from the well-made story.”(White, 16) White also points out that this “conclusion” has to be a moralizing one as he states “I confess that I cannot think of any other way of “concluding” an account of real events.”(White, 23) Such a demand of concluding “arises out of a desire to have real events display the coherence, integrity, fullness, and closure of an image of life that can only be imaginary.” (White, 24) Hence, according to White, a moralizing conclusion has become an essential element of the modern proper history format. It would therefore make sense to dig out such moral meanings in order to have a proper conclusion, even if it is only slightly tangible, and in the case of a media representation of history, the more shocking or incredible that moral meaning is, the better. The moralizing conclusion of the documentary is that the present evacuation plan of the cities currently populated around Mt. Vesuvius is inadequate and that history may likely repeat itself if necessary steps are not taken. They point out that the region around Mt. Vesuvius is home to about six million people while the evacuation plan accounts for only six hundred thousand. However, in an article written by Professor Andrew Wallace-Hadrill and published on the BBC – History wed site it is stated about the monitoring of Mt. Vesuvius that “Through measuring seismic activity, these scientists (i.e. volcanologists) expect to predict an approaching eruption months in advance.” (Wallace) It seems quite impossible that an evacuation plan that could start “months in advance” would only account for six hundred thousand people of the region with all modern day transportations available. It is quite ironic that this article was written by Professor Andrew Wallace-Hadrill as he was also the main researcher being quoted in the documentary.
An appropriate question here would be that why would a non-profit organization like PBS, which is largely funded by the federal government of the United States, what to go out of the way to create a stronger interest amongst the general public to watch their documentaries? This question could be answered in several ways. One reason could be the noble intention of such educational channels to, at the least, develop a better awareness and understanding of the world amongst the public. Considering the fact that PBS is also funded by voluntary contributions from “viewers like you”, it also makes sense that it would be inclined to compete against other channels for economic reasons. A quite recently published book “Communication Technology and Social Change: Theory and Implications” edited by Carolyn A. Lin and David J. Atikin, points out that “One perspective on the limits of consumer spending on entertainment media is ‘the principle of relative constancy’, which states that, over time, the proportion of disposable income spent on entertainment media is relatively constant.” (Lin, 172) Meaning that, over time, consumers always spend a relatively fixed percentage of their income on entertainment media. Bearing this in mind, stations like PBS will always have to compete against other channels as consumers are not going to start spending more on their entertainment needs, they will have to replace another channel or perhaps a movie of the consumers’ choice to get a more share. In order to successfully compete, creating an effective preview, that is to say one that would be interesting enough to sway the audience’s attention, becomes essential due to the lack of awareness of the consumers that choices exist. In the same book mentioned above, it is stated that “most people’s TV viewing is clustered around a limited number of channels. Studies of “channel repertoire” indicate that the typical viewer watches only a small fraction of the number of channels available on a regular basis.” (Lin, 172) Hence, as the consumer will view only those programs of strong interest which will be only on a limited number of channels, it follows that the consumer is likely to be aware only of other programs offered on those limited channels. (Lin, 175) Therefore, the best chance a channel not currently being viewed by the consumer may have is when the consumer may be browsing through channels for something interesting. Thus, there is a strong demand for previews to be crafted in such a way that they would grasp viewers’ interest in as little time as possible if they are to replace a current channel in the viewer’s channel repertoire and increase their number of viewers.
It is quite obvious that with its incorporation into the entertainment industry, historical representation has been effected. However, this incorporation has also had other better outcomes as well, for example, with the use of modern day entertainment technologies like CGI one can have a much better picture of what the past was like. Also historical knowledge can be spread much more effectively, as those who would not have had much of an interest may learn through the appeal of such documentaries. These documentaries are also quite useful in educational institutes when something relevant is being taught. All things considered however, one should be aware that such documentaries may not always be as accurate as one may take them to be, making it important to cross reference before drawing conclusions. However, as long as such documentaries do not cross too many lines in accuracy, historical or otherwise, it just might be worth to have the extra viewers of educational programs.
Following a lay-out structure of historical representation which Hayden White describes in his book “The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation” as the widely considered proper history format, the documentary first narrates its main historical subject, which is the tragic end of two ancient Roman cities, namely Herculaneum and Pompeii. The “story” then continues with a narration of the excavation history of the ancient cities up to the present and finally concluding with, as Hayden White puts it, a “moralizing judgment” that present day residents of the exact same region may have to face a similar fate if necessary steps are not taken. The ancient cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were situated in the shadow of a volcano, Mt. Vesuvius, right off shore of the Bay of Naples which is in the western region of present day Italy. At the time however, the Roman citizens of these two cities “had no idea that their mountain was even a volcano.” (Bedser, min 9) The tragic end of Herculaneum and Pompeii was brought about by an extremely massive eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D, an incident that has become “an iconic historical disaster of the region”. (Bedser, min 3) The eruption is estimated to have begun somewhere around 1 pm on August 24, 79 A.D and within the following minutes, a huge column of gas and ash, calculated to have been about ten miles high, rose above Mt. Vesuvius. (Bedser, min 10-11) The wind then carried the thick cloud of airborne ash and other volcanic materials towards Pompeii on the SE side of the volcano and, while some citizens were still unaware of what had happened, pumice stone (a light kind of solidified lava) started falling all over the city. (Bedser, min 12) Enveloped in the dark volcanic cloud, the day soon became as dark as night in Pompeii. (Bedser, min 12) As panic spread throughout the city, many people fled while others took refuge in their houses hoping that the extremely hostile storm would soon pass. (Bedser, min 12) Unfortunately however, around 5 pm, rooftops started to collapse under the weight of the pumice and ash, which eventually entombed the entire city. (Bedser, min 15-16) Herculaneum, being on the other side of Vesuvius, was safe allowing most of its estimated 4000 civilians to evacuate the city. (Bedser, min 3-5) However, sometime around the first hour of 25th August 79 A.D, the first of a series of pyroclastic flows came down from Vesuvius towards Herculaneum. (Bedser, min 18) Pyroclastic flows, which occur after progressive collapses of the eruption column of a volcano, are basically dense ash-laden clouds along with superheated gases and other volcanic materials that hurdle down at quite high speeds from the top of a volcano, (Bedser, min 19) appearing to be quite like an avalanche while being almost equally destructive in nature. The first pyroclastic flow overwhelmed Herculaneum in probably no more than four minutes after starting its descent from the volcano. (Walter) Although most of Herculaneum residents had managed to evacuate the city, hundreds were still assembled on the shore near the town. (Bedser, min 42) Apparently, they became aware of the pyroclastic flow heading their way due to which they rushed for shelter in the boat chambers on the beach; some were caught by the flow in the open while most made it into the boat sheds. (Capasso, 5) Here, all the residents of Herculaneum that were still unsuccessful in evacuating the city met their tragic end, dying within minutes. (Capasso, 1) The following pyroclastic flows eventually entombed the entire city of Herculaneum under 70 to 80 feet of volcanic waste. (Bedser min 19) In this way, both the ancient cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried out of sight.
The original airdate of the PBS documentary “Secrets of the Dead: Herculaneum Uncovered” was on 14th May 2004. (IMDB) In the preview of the documentary it is stated in the voice over that “now, new excavations are revealing stunning details about the life and death of the town (i.e. Herculaneum)”. Following in the introductory part of the documentary, it is stated “only now is the truth about its (Herculaneum’s) downfall finally coming to light”. (Bedser min 3) By “the truth” in this phrase, as we later find out in the documentary, the writer is referring to the correction of the long held belief that everyone in Herculaneum managed to escape, thanks to the discovery of the skeletal remains of about 250-300 Herculaneum resident victims of the 79 A.D eruption on the ancient beach. This also happens to be one of the “stunning details about the life and death of the town,” as mentioned in the preview. When the narrator in the documentary says “now, new…” in the preview and “only now is the…” in the introductory part, much of the audience is lead to believe that the discovery of the skeletons on the ancient beach of Herculaneum was made just recently, whereas it was actually made in 1982 (Capasso, 1), some 22 years before the documentary was first aired. Only towards the end of the documentary is this point clarified to the audience by stating that “not until 20 years ago...” Also, while “detailing” the deaths of Herculaneum victims in the preview and other places in the documentary, a strong emphasis is given on “heads exploded” and being “incinerated in a blink of an eye.” These incidents, which would seem quite likely to occur when a population is caught in a pyroclastic flow, are emphasized in the documentary in such a way that the audience is lead to believe that this must have been the way most of the 250-300 victims of Herculaneum died on the ancient beach, even though such a deduction is not explicitly stated anywhere in the documentary. For example, in the preview it is stated “Instantly brains boiled and heads exploded” then in the introductory part it is said “(archeologists) have found remarkable human remains that reveal exactly how the people of Herculaneum met their gruesome and explosive ends.” (Bedser, min 3) Again, towards the end of the documentary it is stated in the voice over that “the intense heat caused brains to boil and skulls to explode.” (Bedser, min 45) According to an article published in “The Lancet”, a well reputed medical newspaper of the United Kingdom, and written by Luigi Capasso, an anthropologist and director of the Anthropology Research Institute at Chieti University in central Italy, (Falconi) who personally did research for five years to come to the conclusions that he makes in the article, “Only a few skeletons had morphologies typical of bone and skull explosions caused by very rapid evaporation of the organic liquids contained within them.” (Capasso, 2 and 6) Capasso also writes, referring to the Herculaneum resident victims found inside the boat sheds, “There was no evidence of bone or skull explosion among the remains of these victims; bone and skull fractures were probably caused by the violent impacts of boulders, beams, tiles and bricks carried by the second flow, which tore through the town and threw material on to the beach, some of which penetrated the boat sheds. In fact, most of the damage to the human remains was caused by the arrival of these materials during the second hour of the night, when people had been dead for about an hour.”(Capasso, 7) Further elaborating on the cause of death of these victims he writes “The indirect, gradual transfer of heat to the people in the boat sheds may have also slowed down the arrival of death, giving them time to take a few breaths; breathing would have allowed large quantities of dust from the first flow to enter into their bronchi ….. Suffocation could therefore have contributed to the deaths of the people who sought refuge in the boat sheds.” (Capasso, 9) In the documentary, even the possibility of the boat shed victims dying of suffocation is not mentioned, nor is there any mention of how many or which victims (i.e. victims outside or inside the boat sheds) could have died of a thermal shock strong enough to result in a head explosion, as if the makers of the documentary wanted to avoid any contradiction to what was implied in the preview and throughout the documentary so that their audience may believe those implications instead of what was being stated.
In light of Professor Hayden White’s critique on historical representation, another way historical documentaries may slightly mislead the audience is likely to be found in its conclusion. In his book, “The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation” Hayden White points out that in modern times, one of the major ways of distinguishing a superior or better historical representation by historians is the extent of its “narrative coherency,” the greater narrative coherency of a historical representation, the better it is. Elaborating on this point, White compares the annals and chronicle forms of historical representation. Annals are, as White puts it, “a list of events ordered in chronological sequence.” (White, 5) This is done by listing years in a column on the left hand side and writing significant or important events next to the year of their occurrence in the right hand side. A chronicle, however, presents historical events in a “story like way.” (White, 5) It is due to this greater narrative coherency that, according to White, a chronicle is widely considered to be a “mode of historiographical representation superior to the annals form.” (White, 16) In a similar manner, White states that a chronicle lacks in narrative coherency as it “does not so much conclude as terminate...” (White, 16) which is “one of the reasons why nineteenth-century editors of the medieval chronicles denied them the status of genuine “histories”.”(White, 16) This is largely due to the fact that a well stated conclusion is characteristic to what “we normally expect from the well-made story.”(White, 16) White also points out that this “conclusion” has to be a moralizing one as he states “I confess that I cannot think of any other way of “concluding” an account of real events.”(White, 23) Such a demand of concluding “arises out of a desire to have real events display the coherence, integrity, fullness, and closure of an image of life that can only be imaginary.” (White, 24) Hence, according to White, a moralizing conclusion has become an essential element of the modern proper history format. It would therefore make sense to dig out such moral meanings in order to have a proper conclusion, even if it is only slightly tangible, and in the case of a media representation of history, the more shocking or incredible that moral meaning is, the better. The moralizing conclusion of the documentary is that the present evacuation plan of the cities currently populated around Mt. Vesuvius is inadequate and that history may likely repeat itself if necessary steps are not taken. They point out that the region around Mt. Vesuvius is home to about six million people while the evacuation plan accounts for only six hundred thousand. However, in an article written by Professor Andrew Wallace-Hadrill and published on the BBC – History wed site it is stated about the monitoring of Mt. Vesuvius that “Through measuring seismic activity, these scientists (i.e. volcanologists) expect to predict an approaching eruption months in advance.” (Wallace) It seems quite impossible that an evacuation plan that could start “months in advance” would only account for six hundred thousand people of the region with all modern day transportations available. It is quite ironic that this article was written by Professor Andrew Wallace-Hadrill as he was also the main researcher being quoted in the documentary.
An appropriate question here would be that why would a non-profit organization like PBS, which is largely funded by the federal government of the United States, what to go out of the way to create a stronger interest amongst the general public to watch their documentaries? This question could be answered in several ways. One reason could be the noble intention of such educational channels to, at the least, develop a better awareness and understanding of the world amongst the public. Considering the fact that PBS is also funded by voluntary contributions from “viewers like you”, it also makes sense that it would be inclined to compete against other channels for economic reasons. A quite recently published book “Communication Technology and Social Change: Theory and Implications” edited by Carolyn A. Lin and David J. Atikin, points out that “One perspective on the limits of consumer spending on entertainment media is ‘the principle of relative constancy’, which states that, over time, the proportion of disposable income spent on entertainment media is relatively constant.” (Lin, 172) Meaning that, over time, consumers always spend a relatively fixed percentage of their income on entertainment media. Bearing this in mind, stations like PBS will always have to compete against other channels as consumers are not going to start spending more on their entertainment needs, they will have to replace another channel or perhaps a movie of the consumers’ choice to get a more share. In order to successfully compete, creating an effective preview, that is to say one that would be interesting enough to sway the audience’s attention, becomes essential due to the lack of awareness of the consumers that choices exist. In the same book mentioned above, it is stated that “most people’s TV viewing is clustered around a limited number of channels. Studies of “channel repertoire” indicate that the typical viewer watches only a small fraction of the number of channels available on a regular basis.” (Lin, 172) Hence, as the consumer will view only those programs of strong interest which will be only on a limited number of channels, it follows that the consumer is likely to be aware only of other programs offered on those limited channels. (Lin, 175) Therefore, the best chance a channel not currently being viewed by the consumer may have is when the consumer may be browsing through channels for something interesting. Thus, there is a strong demand for previews to be crafted in such a way that they would grasp viewers’ interest in as little time as possible if they are to replace a current channel in the viewer’s channel repertoire and increase their number of viewers.
It is quite obvious that with its incorporation into the entertainment industry, historical representation has been effected. However, this incorporation has also had other better outcomes as well, for example, with the use of modern day entertainment technologies like CGI one can have a much better picture of what the past was like. Also historical knowledge can be spread much more effectively, as those who would not have had much of an interest may learn through the appeal of such documentaries. These documentaries are also quite useful in educational institutes when something relevant is being taught. All things considered however, one should be aware that such documentaries may not always be as accurate as one may take them to be, making it important to cross reference before drawing conclusions. However, as long as such documentaries do not cross too many lines in accuracy, historical or otherwise, it just might be worth to have the extra viewers of educational programs.
**********************************************************
White, Hayden. The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation. Baltimore and London. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987. 1-27.
Lin, Carolyn A., and David J. Atikin, eds. Communication Technology and Social Change: Theory and Implications. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2007. 167-182.
Secrets of the Dead: Herculaneum Uncovered. Dir. Bedser, Richard. PBS. Denver. 14 May 2004. 16 June 2007
< http://www.guba.com/watch/2000993691 >.
Falconi, Marta. "Da Vinci's Fingerprint Found?" Desert Morning News 3 Dec. 2006. 21 July 2007
< http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,650211967,00.html >.
Capasso, Luigi. “Herculaneum victims of the volcanic eruptions of Vesuvius in 79 AD.” The Lancet. 14 Oct. 2000. Academic Search Primer (Ebsco). 29 June 2007 < http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673600028270/fulltext >
Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. "Pompeii: Portents of Disaster." BBC - History - Pompeii: Portents of Disaster. (2003). 23 July 2007
< http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/pompeii_portents_01.shtml >.
"Episode List for "Secrets of the Dead"". “Secrets of the Dead” (2001) – Episode list. IMDB. 23 July 2007 < http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0354333/episodes >.
Finny Walter, James Peyster, Adam Stem, Nick Kuppens and “The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius”, 19th June, 2007,< http://abacus.bates.edu/~mimber/Rciv/Herculaneum/Vesuvius.html>
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